A hundred years ago L. S. Berg had formulated the first scientific definition of the geographical landscape (1913) and proposed to regard landscape as the main subject of geography (1915). Another three decades had passed before the systematic development of the theoretical foundations of the landscape concept has begun. The article analyzes the main directions of evolution of landscape science in the period of its greatest growth since the mid 1940s. To the early 1990s, the landscape science ( landshaftovedenie) has accumulated extensive experience of fundamental and applied research, and spontaneously developed a specific landscape-geographical scientific method, having a wide interdisciplinary value in the study of the interactions between society and its natural environment, and for developing strategies of humanity at the face of increasing anthropogenic press on landscapes. The immediate objective of the landscape science should be considered as the revision of fragmentary methodological judgments and conclusions to the concept of landscape-geographic (geosystemic) scientific method.

In the context of landscape science the landscape (paysage) in European painting is not a homogeneous genre. One can distinguish between landscape-decor, landscape-background, landscape-condition, landscape-participant and landscape-as-such. Only the last form of the landscape scenery in painting should be considered as a true landscape. The other forms of painted landscape in one way or another had extraneous art-scene load. In the Middle Ages, painters depicted landscape-participant. It carried an extremely high existential load, which had a basis in the very nature of the medieval world-view that is fundamentally different from modem European one. That is why modem European forms of the landscape in painting as regards the existential and real landscape are conceptually different from the medieval ones. But they also were genetically related to them. Modem European forms of the landscape painting were formed during Early and Northern Renaissance by transformation of the medieval landscape-participant. Landscape-as-such had emerged in the 1470-1490s. The first landscape painters of Europe, who had depicted pure landscape, were Piero della Francesca (1470), Leonardo da Vinci (1473) and Albrecht Dürer (1489). The first masterpieces of landscape-as-such painting in Europe portrayed anthropogenic (including urban) landscapes but not natural scenery.

The results of field studies on the Northern island of the Novaya Zemlya archipelago (partly within the boundaries of the national park «Russian Arctic») are discussed. This area stands out among the rest of the archipelago and the mainland coast in the western part of the Kara sea. A feature of the coastal landscape in the north-east of the Northern island constitute the elements of the «old banks», including: beaches not affected by currently action of waves; ancient depositional ridge; marginal ledge closest to the sea, covered by loose sediments. The formation of these natural systems is caused by the shift of the coastline towards the sea as a result of relative rise of tectonic blocks in this part of the archipelago. Positive tectonic movements are also expressed in the shallow waters of the lagoons and estuaries and the lengthening of the river channels due to erosion of the forms of coastal accumulation.

The complex character of cave conditions changes under influence of anthropogenic pressure is given for the first time basing on the long-time field studies. The new notion of cave disturbance index (CDI) includes five main categories of environmental changes: that of relief, water bodies, air, vegetation and wild animals, as well as the mechanical pollution by the human activity. The possibility of the CDI mapping is considered using the example of natural park «Muradimovskoe uschel'e» caves (Southern Ural).

The article presents a study of rural settlement patterns by the methods of cluster analysis, on the basis of which the typification of areas of the Orenburg region was held, the typing models were constructed and certain regularities were identified in the distribution of population in relation to the characteristics of use of natural resources. According to the results of expert assessments and correlation analysis the 10 socio-economic, landscape and environmental indicators were allocated for the subsequent clustering in different ways. To determine the latent groupings of municipalities, we used two hierarchical algorithms and one iterative - «K-means». Multivariate statistical analysis, made using the application «Statistica 10» allowed to identify 7 types of rural settlement patterns uniting areas on five or more common indicatiors. Formation of four groups of regions is due to confinement of rural settlements in river valleys, two clusters are determined by population density and density of settlements, and the other two - by economic and geographical position in relation to highways. These areas are also featured by a certain degree of uniformity of distribution of the rural population by village councils. Slightly less than half of all districts of the region is formed by three groups of districts, settlements of which gravitate to watershed types of terrain, which are also distinguished by varying degrees of settlements density, its distribution along the main roads and in five-kilometer zone of boundaries of regional and federal levels. An important parameter for all clusters was the change of rural population. Thus, in a less degree the allocation of types of rural settlement patterns was influenced by such indicators as the proportion of settlements within a radius of 25 kilometers from the district center and the population size of settlements.

The article describes the particular aspects of the administrative-territorial structure of contemporary Croatia and analyses the demographic profile taken in certain regions of the country. The demographic changes are the perfect indicator of the «socioeconomic climate» in the country. Research based on 2001 and 2011. Census data revealed the general demographic trends, the most attractive areas of Croatia and the lack of any major ethnic changes.

The article is devoted to semicentenary activity at the Russian Geographical Society of Mikhail Rykachev (1841-1919) - academician, general of the Navy, Director of the Central Physical Observatory of the Academy of Sciences.

The article is devoted to the first period of the history of the Orenburg Department of Imperial Russian geographical society (OD IRGS) and examines the activity of the officers of the Orenburg military and topographical department (MTD), who were the most active members of OD IRGIS at that period. MTD had been established in Orenburg in 1866 (two years prior to opening of OD IRGS), therefore by the time of creation of the scientific organization in the city there had been a potential of well educated officers-topographers, having skills of research work. Among them were: A. R. Bonsdorf (1839-1918), N. G. Zalesov (1828-1896), M. E. Korolev (1841-1911), M. N. Lebedev (1841-1892), N. O. Solimani (1845-1877), A. A. Tillo (1839-1900), etc. They were engaged in research work and tried to enrich regional science with the knowledge gained during field expeditions, to educate local community of enthusiasts. For these purposes they made reports at scientific meetings and published the articles. Their studies promoted collecting scientific information, and gained results increased prestige of the Orenburg department of IRGO.